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Abstract
ABSTRACT
Introduction. Cervical cancer remains a major public health burden in Central Africa, where screening rates are persistently low. Understanding the determinants of non-screening is crucial for designing effective intervention strategies. This study aimed to identify factors associated with cervical cancer non-screening among women attending a major gynecological center in Yaoundé, Cameroon. Methodology. We conducted a cross-sectional mixed-methods study at Yaoundé Endoscopic Surgery and Human Reproduction Research and Application Centre, from March to December 2017, involving 1000 women aged ≥25 years. Quantitative data were collected via structured questionnaires, and qualitative insights were obtained through semi-structured interviews with 12 purposively selected participants. Multivariate logistic regression identified independent predictors of non-screening. Results. The mean age was 37.1±10.1 years, and 733 women (73.3%) had never been screened. Independent predictors of non-screening were age <35 years (aOR=4.8; 95%CI:3.3-6.8), Muslim religion (aOR=2.2; 95%CI:1.1-4.6), and unemployment (aOR=1.6; 95%CI:1.2-2.3). Qualitative analysis revealed four key barriers: fear of cancer diagnosis, inadequate sensitization campaigns, absence of healthcare provider prescription, and limited knowledge about screening benefits. Notably, 92.6% of previously unscreened women accepted screening when offered during the study. Conclusion. Our findings reveal that young, unemployed, and Muslim women in Cameroon face disproportionate barriers to cervical cancer screening. Effective interventions should target these specific populations through improved patient education, proactive provider recommendations, and community-based sensitization programs that address cultural and structural obstacles.
RÉSUMÉ
Introduction. Le cancer du col utérin représente un fardeau sanitaire majeur en Afrique centrale, où les taux de dépistage restent faibles. La compréhension des déterminants de la non-participation est cruciale pour concevoir des stratégies d'intervention efficaces. Cette étude visait à identifier les facteurs associés à l'absence de dépistage du cancer du col chez les femmes consultant dans un centre gynécologique de référence à Yaoundé, Cameroun. Méthodologie. Nous avons mené une étude transversale mixte quantitative et qualitative au Centre Hospitalier de Recherche et d’Application en Chirurgie Endoscopique et Reproduction Humaine (CHRACERH) de, Yaoundé, de mars à décembre 2017, incluant 1000 femmes âgées de ≥25 ans. Les données quantitatives ont été recueillies par questionnaires structurés, et les données qualitatives par entretiens semi-structurés avec 12 participantes sélectionnées intentionnellement. Une régression logistique multivariée a identifié les prédicteurs indépendants de non-dépistage. Résultats. L'âge moyen était de 37,1±10,1 ans, et 733 femmes (73,3%) n'avaient jamais été dépistées. Les prédicteurs indépendants étaient l'âge <35 ans (aOR=4,8; IC95%:3,3-6,8), la religion musulmane (aOR=2,2; IC95%:1,1-4,6) et le chômage (aOR=1,6; IC95%:1,2-2,3). L'analyse qualitative a révélé quatre obstacles majeurs : peur du diagnostic, campagnes de sensibilisation inadéquates, absence de prescription médicale et méconnaissance des bénéfices du dépistage. Fait notable, 92,6% des femmes précédemment non dépistées ont accepté le test lorsqu'il était proposé. Conclusion. Nos résultats identifient les jeunes femmes, les femmes musulmanes et les femmes sans emploi comme confrontées à des obstacles disproportionnés au dépistage. Les interventions devraient cibler spécifiquement ces populations grâce à une éducation adaptée, des recommandations proactives des soignants et des campagnes communautaires addressant les freins culturels et structurels.
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References
- 1. Sung H, Ferlay J, Siegel RL, Laversanne M, Soerjomataram I, Jemal A, et al. Global cancer statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2021;71(3):209-49.
- 2. Sando Z, Fouelifack YF, Fouogue TJ, Fouedjio JH, Essame-Oyono JL. Trends in breast and cervical cancer incidence in Cameroon (Central Africa) from 2004 to 2011. J Afr Cancer. 2015;7(3):118-21. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12558-015-0378-5
- 3. Enow Orock G, Ndom P, Doh A. Current cancer incidence and trends in Yaounde, Cameroon. Oncol Gastroenterol Hepatol Rep. 2012;1(2):58. Available from: http://www.oghr.org/text.asp?2012/1/2/58/133639
- 4. Vaccarella S, Franceschi S, Zaridze D, Poljak M, Veerus P, Plummer M, et al. Preventable fractions of cervical cancer via effective screening in six Baltic, central, and eastern European countries 2017–40: a population-based study. Lancet Oncol. 2016;17(10):1445-52.
- 5. Yang DX, Soulos PR, Davis B, Gross CP, Yu JB. Impact of widespread cervical cancer screening: number of cancers prevented and changes in race-specific incidence. Am J Clin Oncol. 2018;41(3):289-94.
- 6. Ezem BU. Awareness and uptake of cervical cancer screening in Owerri, South-Eastern Nigeria. Ann Afr Med. 2007;6(3):94-8.
- 7. Eakin C, Ekollo R, Nembulefack D, Halle-Ekane G, Tangui G, Brady R, et al. Cervical cancer screening beliefs and prevalence of LSIL/HSIL among a university-based population in Cameroon. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2018 ;22(4):274-9.
- 8. Kemfang JDN, Ngassam A, Meka EN, Fouogue JT, Tagne JC, Sando Z, et al. Dépistage du cancer du col utérin par l’inspection visuelle du col après application d’acide acétique à Yaoundé, Cameroun. Health Sci Dis. 2015;16(4). Available from: https://hsd-fmsb.org/index.php/hsd/article/view/578
- 9. Ba DM, Ssentongo P, Musa J, Agbese E, Diakite B, Traore CB, et al. Prevalence and determinants of cervical cancer screening in five sub-Saharan African countries: a population-based study. Cancer Epidemiol. 2021; 72:101930. Available from: http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=85102787964&partnerID=8YFLogxK
- 10. Woldetsadik AB, Amhare AF, Bitew ST, Pei L, Lei J, Han J. Socio-demographic characteristics and associated factors influencing cervical cancer screening among women attending St. Paul’s Teaching and Referral Hospital, Ethiopia. BMC Womens Health. 2020;20(1):70. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-00927-5
- 11. Datchoua Moukam AM, Embolo Owono MS, Kenfack B, Vassilakos P, Petignat P, Sormani J, et al. Cervical cancer screening: awareness is not enough. Understanding barriers to screening among women in West Cameroon—a qualitative study using focus groups. Reprod Health. 2021;18(1):147. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-021-01186-9
- 12. Ezechi OC, Gab-Okafor CV, Ostergren PO, Pettersson KO. Willingness and acceptability of cervical cancer screening among HIV positive Nigerian women. BMC Public Health. 2013;13(1):46. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-46
- 13. World Medical Association. World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA. 2013;310(20):2191-4.
- 14. Njuguna E, Ilovi S, Muiruri P, Mutai K, Kinuthia J, Njoroge P. Factors influencing cervical cancer screening in a Kenyan health facility: a mixed qualitative and quantitative study. Int J Reprod Contracept Obstet Gynecol. 2017;6(4):1180-5. Available from: https://www.ijrcog.org/index.php/ijrcog/article/view/1751
- 15. Mingo AM, Panozzo CA, DiAngi YT, Smith JS, Steenhoff AP, Ramogola-Masire D, et al. Cervical cancer awareness and screening in Botswana. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2012 ;22(4):638-44.
- 16. Phaswana-Mafuya N, Peltzer K. Breast and cervical cancer screening prevalence and associated factors among women in the South African general population. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2018;19(6):1465-70. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6103566/
- 17. Ndejjo R, Mukama T, Musabyimana A, Musoke D. Uptake of cervical cancer screening and associated factors among women in rural Uganda: a cross-sectional study. PLoS One. 2016;11(2): e0149696.
- 18. Widiasih R, Nelson K. Muslim husbands’ roles in women’s health and cancer: the perspectives of Muslim women in Indonesia. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2018;19(6):1703-9. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6103578/
References
1. Sung H, Ferlay J, Siegel RL, Laversanne M, Soerjomataram I, Jemal A, et al. Global cancer statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2021;71(3):209-49.
2. Sando Z, Fouelifack YF, Fouogue TJ, Fouedjio JH, Essame-Oyono JL. Trends in breast and cervical cancer incidence in Cameroon (Central Africa) from 2004 to 2011. J Afr Cancer. 2015;7(3):118-21. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12558-015-0378-5
3. Enow Orock G, Ndom P, Doh A. Current cancer incidence and trends in Yaounde, Cameroon. Oncol Gastroenterol Hepatol Rep. 2012;1(2):58. Available from: http://www.oghr.org/text.asp?2012/1/2/58/133639
4. Vaccarella S, Franceschi S, Zaridze D, Poljak M, Veerus P, Plummer M, et al. Preventable fractions of cervical cancer via effective screening in six Baltic, central, and eastern European countries 2017–40: a population-based study. Lancet Oncol. 2016;17(10):1445-52.
5. Yang DX, Soulos PR, Davis B, Gross CP, Yu JB. Impact of widespread cervical cancer screening: number of cancers prevented and changes in race-specific incidence. Am J Clin Oncol. 2018;41(3):289-94.
6. Ezem BU. Awareness and uptake of cervical cancer screening in Owerri, South-Eastern Nigeria. Ann Afr Med. 2007;6(3):94-8.
7. Eakin C, Ekollo R, Nembulefack D, Halle-Ekane G, Tangui G, Brady R, et al. Cervical cancer screening beliefs and prevalence of LSIL/HSIL among a university-based population in Cameroon. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2018 ;22(4):274-9.
8. Kemfang JDN, Ngassam A, Meka EN, Fouogue JT, Tagne JC, Sando Z, et al. Dépistage du cancer du col utérin par l’inspection visuelle du col après application d’acide acétique à Yaoundé, Cameroun. Health Sci Dis. 2015;16(4). Available from: https://hsd-fmsb.org/index.php/hsd/article/view/578
9. Ba DM, Ssentongo P, Musa J, Agbese E, Diakite B, Traore CB, et al. Prevalence and determinants of cervical cancer screening in five sub-Saharan African countries: a population-based study. Cancer Epidemiol. 2021; 72:101930. Available from: http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=85102787964&partnerID=8YFLogxK
10. Woldetsadik AB, Amhare AF, Bitew ST, Pei L, Lei J, Han J. Socio-demographic characteristics and associated factors influencing cervical cancer screening among women attending St. Paul’s Teaching and Referral Hospital, Ethiopia. BMC Womens Health. 2020;20(1):70. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-00927-5
11. Datchoua Moukam AM, Embolo Owono MS, Kenfack B, Vassilakos P, Petignat P, Sormani J, et al. Cervical cancer screening: awareness is not enough. Understanding barriers to screening among women in West Cameroon—a qualitative study using focus groups. Reprod Health. 2021;18(1):147. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-021-01186-9
12. Ezechi OC, Gab-Okafor CV, Ostergren PO, Pettersson KO. Willingness and acceptability of cervical cancer screening among HIV positive Nigerian women. BMC Public Health. 2013;13(1):46. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-46
13. World Medical Association. World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA. 2013;310(20):2191-4.
14. Njuguna E, Ilovi S, Muiruri P, Mutai K, Kinuthia J, Njoroge P. Factors influencing cervical cancer screening in a Kenyan health facility: a mixed qualitative and quantitative study. Int J Reprod Contracept Obstet Gynecol. 2017;6(4):1180-5. Available from: https://www.ijrcog.org/index.php/ijrcog/article/view/1751
15. Mingo AM, Panozzo CA, DiAngi YT, Smith JS, Steenhoff AP, Ramogola-Masire D, et al. Cervical cancer awareness and screening in Botswana. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2012 ;22(4):638-44.
16. Phaswana-Mafuya N, Peltzer K. Breast and cervical cancer screening prevalence and associated factors among women in the South African general population. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2018;19(6):1465-70. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6103566/
17. Ndejjo R, Mukama T, Musabyimana A, Musoke D. Uptake of cervical cancer screening and associated factors among women in rural Uganda: a cross-sectional study. PLoS One. 2016;11(2): e0149696.
18. Widiasih R, Nelson K. Muslim husbands’ roles in women’s health and cancer: the perspectives of Muslim women in Indonesia. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2018;19(6):1703-9. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6103578/
